Food Tests Lab Report

Food Test 1: Test for Glucose – with Benedicts solution Benedicts solution is used to test for simple sugars, such as glucose. It is a clear blue solution of sodium and copper salts. In presence of simple sugars, the blue solution changes color to either green, yellow or brick-red, depending on the amount of sugar. Method 1)Mix smalls amount of each food sample (i. e. , Egg lumen, cylindrical piece of potato tuber, bread crump and crisps) in different test tubes with distilled water to make a liquid test.Take another test tube with glucose solution to act as a control so as to compare the difference in color after the completion of the experiment. 2)Label each of the test tubes with a marker for the substance. 3)Add 10 drops of Benedict's solution to each test tube. 4)Carefully heat the test tubes by suspending in a hot water bath using a 500 ml beaker at about 40-50 degrees Celsius for five minutes. 5)Note any color change. Positive test for Glucose: If sugar is present solut ion will turn from blue to green, yellow, or brick-red, depending on sugar concentration. A green precipitate means a little glucose was present. ?A red precipitate means glucose is present in vast amounts. Food Test 2: Test for Starch – with Iodine solution. Iodine solution is used to identify the presence of starch- a complex carbohydrate. Iodine solution (potassium iodide solution) reacts with amylase – a type of starch – whereby a blue-black polyiodide complex is formed. Method 1)Mix smalls amount of each food samples (i. e. , Egg lumen, cylindrical piece of potato tuber, bread crump and crisps) in different test tubes with distilled water to make a liquid test.Take another test tube with starch solution to act as a control to compare the difference in color after the completion of the experiment. 2)Label each test tube with a marker for the substance. 3)Add 5 drops of iodine reagent solution to each test tube. 4)Note any color change. Positive Test for Star ch: The brick-red solution of iodine turns to blue-black. Food Test 3: Test for Protein – with Biuret solution Biuret solution is used to identify the presence of protein. More accurately, it detects the presence of peptide bonds. Peptide bonds form a violet chelate complex with copper (II) ions present in the Biuret Reagent.Method 1)Mix smalls amount of each food samples (i. e. , Egg lumen, cylindrical piece of potato tuber, bread crump and crisps) in different test tubes with distilled water to make a liquid test. Take another test tube with protein solution to act as a control to compare the difference in color after the completion of the experiment. 2)Label each test tube with a marker for the substance. 3)Add 5 drops of Biuret reagent solution to each test tube. Shake gently to mix. 4)Note any color change. Positive test for proteins: the solution will turn from blue to pink/purple. Food Test 4: Test for Lipids – the ethanol emulsion test.Ethanol determines the pr esence of lipids – i. e. , fats and oils. The solubilities of lipid in ethanol and water are exploited in this test since lipids are soluble in ethanol but not in water. So, if lipids are present a milky/cloudy white suspension is formed. Method 1)Add all different food samples (i. e. , Egg lumen, cylindrical piece of potato tuber, bread crump and crisps) in different test tubes. Also, take another test tube with Vegetable oil to act as a control to compare the difference in emulsion of the lipids after the completion of the experiment. 2)Label each test tube with a marker for the substance. )Add 5cm3 of ethanol to each test tube. Shake the sample with ethanol. 4)Pour some cold water into this mixture in the test tube. 5)Note whether the different solutions become cloudy to prove the presence of lipid Positive test for lipid: The solution changes into a cloudy-white emulsion due to the suspension formed. Conclusion and Evaluation (CE) Conclusion This test reveals the hidden f ats, sugars, proteins and starch in food items. Compounds such as sugars and fats are present in living things. Though the food samples being tested had more than one compound present i. . , egg lumen contains starch, proteins and lipids; Potato tuber contains starch, glucose and lipids; Bread contains starch, glucose and slight lipids; and crisps contain starch, glucose and lipids. Hence, different food samples have different compounds present. Evaluation ?Limitations i. The time the test tubes were kept in the water bath was not accurate. ii. The volume of food samples differ in each test tube for the same test. ?Improvements i. By using a stop watch for more accurate timing. ii. Set a fixed volume of food samples in each test tube.

Software Requirements Specification Template

Software Requirements Specification Template CptS 322—Software Engineering 9 February 2005 The following annotated template shall be used to complete the Software Requirements Specification (SRS) assignment of WSU-TC CptS 322. The instructor must approve any modifications to the overall structure of this document. Template Usage: Text contained within angle brackets (‘’) shall be replaced by your project-specific information and/or details.For example, will be replaced with either ‘Smart Home’ or ‘Sensor Network’. Italicized text is included to briefly annotate the purpose of each section within this template. This text should not appear in the final version of your submitted SRS. This cover page is not a part of the final template and should be removed before your SRS is submitted. Acknowledgements: Sections of this document are based upon the IEEE Guide to Software Requirements Specification (ANSI/IEEE Std. 30-1984). The SRS templates o f Dr. Orest Pilskalns (WSU, Vancover) and Jack Hagemeister (WSU, Pullman) have also be used as guides in developing this template for the WSU-TC Spring 2005 CptS 322 course. Software Requirements Specification Lead Software Engineer Prepared for WSU-TC CptS 322—Software Engineering Principles I Instructor: A. David McKinnon, Ph. D. Spring 2005 Revision History Date |Description |Author |Comments | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Document Approval The following Software Requirements Specification has been accepted and approved by the following: |Signature |Printed Name |Title |Date | | | |Lead Software Eng. | | | |A.David McKinnon |Instructor, CptS 322 | | | | | | | Table of Contents Revision Historyii Document Approvalii 1. Introduction1 1. 1 Purpose1 1. 2 Scope1 1. 3 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations1 1. 4 References1 1. 5 Overview1 2. General Description2 2. 1 Product Perspective2 2. 2 Product Functions2 2. 3 User Characteristics2 2. 4 General Constraints2 2. 5 Assumptions and Dependencies2 3. Specific Requirements2 3. 1 External Interface Requirements3 3. 1. 1 User Interfaces3 3. 1. 2 Hardware Interfaces3 3. 1. 3 Software Interfaces3 3. 1. 4 Communications Interfaces3 3. 2 Functional Requirements3 3. 2. 1 3 3. 2. 2 3 3. 3 Use Cases3 3. 3. 1 Use Case #13 3. 3. 2 Use Case #23 3. Classes / Objects3 3. 4. 1 3 3. 4. 2 3 3. 5 Non-Functional Requirements4 3. 5. 1 Performance4 3. 5. 2 Reliability4 3. 5. 3 Availability4 3. 5. 4 Security4 3. 5. 5 Maintainability4 3. 5. 6 Portability4 3. 6 Inverse Requirements4 3. 7 Design Constraints4 3. 8 Logical Database Requirements4 3. 9 Other Requirements4 4. Analysis Models4 4. 1 Sequence Diagrams5 4. 3 Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)5 4. 2 State-Transition Diagrams (STD)5 5. Change Management Process5 A. Appendices5 A. 1 Appendix 15 A. 2 Appendix 25 1. Introduction The introduction to the Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document should provide an overview of the complete SRS document.While writing this document please remember that this document should contain all of the information needed by a software engineer to adequately design and implement the software product described by the requirements listed in this document. (Note: the following subsection annotates are largely taken from the IEEE Guide to SRS). 1. 1 Purpose What is the purpose of this SRS and the (intended) audience for which it is written. 1. 2 Scope This subsection should: (1) Identify the software product(s) to be produced by name; for example, Host DBMS, Report Generator, etc (2)Explain what the software product(s) will, and, if necessary, will not do (3)Describe the application of the software being specified. As a portion of this, it should: (a) Describe all relevant benefits, objectives, and goals as precisely as possible.For example, to say that one goal is to provide effective reporting capabilities is not as good as saying parameter-driven, user-definable reports with a 2 h turnaround and on-line entry of u ser parameters. (b) Be consistent with similar statements in higher-level specifications (for example, the System Requirement Specification) , if they exist. What is the scope of this software product. 1. 3 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations This subsection should provide the definitions of all terms, acronyms, and abbreviations required to properly interpret the SRS. This information may be provided by reference to one or more appendixes in the SRS or by reference to other documents. 1.4 References This subsection should: (1)Provide a complete list of all documents referenced elsewhere in the SRS, or in a separate, specified document. 2)Identify each document by title, report number – if applicable – date, and publishing organization. (3)Specify the sources from which the references can be obtained. This information may be provided by reference to an appendix or to another document. 1. 5 Overview This subsection should: (1) Describe what the rest of the SRS cont ains (2) Explain how the SRS is organized. 2. General Description This section of the SRS should describe the general factors that affect ‘the product and its requirements. It should be made clear that this section does not state specific requirements; it only makes those requirements easier to understand. 2. 1 Product PerspectiveThis subsection of the SRS puts the product into perspective with other related products or projects. (See the IEEE Guide to SRS for more details). 2. 2 Product Functions This subsection of the SRS should provide a summary of the functions that the software will perform. 2. 3 User Characteristics This subsection of the SRS should describe those general characteristics of the eventual users of the product that will affect the specific requirements. (See the IEEE Guide to SRS for more details).2. 4 General Constraints This subsection of the SRS should provide a general description of any other items that will limit the developer’s options for des igning the system. See the IEEE Guide to SRS for a partial list of possible general constraints). 2. 5 Assumptions and Dependencies This subsection of the SRS should list each of the factors that affect the requirements stated in the SRS. These factors are not design constraints on the software but are, rather, any changes to them that can affect the requirements in the SRS. For example, an assumption might be that a specific operating system will be available on the hardware designated for the software product. If, in fact, the operating system is not available, the SRS would then have to change accordingly. 3. Specific Requirements This will be the largest and most important section of the SRS.The customer requirements will be embodied within Section 2, but this section will give the D-requirements that are used to guide the project’s software design, implementation, and testing. Each requirement in this section should be: †¢ Correct †¢ Traceable (both forward and backward to prior/future artifacts) †¢ Unambiguous †¢ Verifiable (i. e. , testable) †¢ Prioritized (with respect to importance and/or stability) †¢ Complete †¢ Consistent †¢ Uniquely identifiable (usually via numbering like 3. 4. 5. 6) Attention should be paid to the carefuly organize the requirements presented in this section so that they may easily accessed and understood.Furthermore, this SRS is not the software design document, therefore one should avoid the tendency to over-constrain (and therefore design) the software project within this SRS. 3. External Interface Requirements 3. 1. 1 User Interfaces 3. 1. 2 Hardware Interfaces 3. 1. 3 Software Interfaces 3. 1. 4 Communications Interfaces 3. 2 Functional Requirements This section describes specific features of the software project. If desired, some requirements may be specified in the use-case format and listed in the Use Cases Section. 3. 2. 1 3. 2. 1. 1 Introduction 3. 2. 1. 2 Inputs 3. 2. 1. 3 Processing 3. 2. 1. 4 Outputs 3. 2. 1. 5 Error Handling 3. 2. 2 †¦ 3. 3 Use Cases 3. 3. 1 Use Case #1 3. 3. 2 Use Case #2 †¦ 3. 4 Classes / Objects 3. 4. 1 3. 4. 1. 1 Attributes 3. 4. 1. 2 Functions 3. 4. 2 †¦ 3. 5 Non-Functional RequirementsNon-functional requirements may exist for the following attributes. Often these requirements must be achieved at a system-wide level rather than at a unit level. State the requirements in the following sections in measurable terms (e. g. , 95% of transaction shall be processed in less than a second, system downtime may not exceed 1 minute per day, ;gt; 30 day MTBF value, etc). 3. 5. 1 Performance 3. 5. 2 Reliability 3. 5. 3 Availability 3. 5. 4 Security3. 5. 5 Maintainability 3. 5. 6 Portability 3. 6 Inverse Requirements State any *useful* inverse requirements. 3. 7 Design Constraints Specify design constrains imposed by other standards, company policies, hardware limitation, etc. hat will impact this software project. 3. 8 Logic al Database Requirements Will a database be used? If so, what logical requirements exist for data formats, storage capabilities, data retention, data integrity, etc. 3. 9 Other Requirements Catchall section for any additional requirements. 4. Analysis Models List all analysis models used in developing specific requirements previously given in this SRS. Each model should include an introduction and a narrative description. Furthermore, each model should be traceable the SRS’s requirements. 4. 1 Sequence Diagrams 4. 3 Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) 4. 2 State-Transition Diagrams (STD) 5. Change Management ProcessIdentify and describe the process that will be used to update the SRS, as needed, when project scope or requirements change. Who can submit changes and by what means, and how will these changes be approved. A. Appendices Appendices may be used to provide additional (and hopefully helpful) information. If present, the SRS should explicitly state whether the information contain ed within an appendix is to be considered as a part of the SRS’s overall set of requirements. Example Appendices could include (initial) conceptual documents for the software project, marketing materials, minutes of meetings with the customer(s), etc. A. 1 Appendix 1 A. 2 Appendix 2

Behavior is hereditary Essay Example for Free

Behavior is hereditary Essay The whole issue of nature and nurture is complex with potential debates centered round their influences on human development. Nature refers to the traits inherited from parents while nurture refers to the influence of the environment to an individual’s behavior (Lippa 2005, p. 26). Psychological research shows that both nature and nature have a general influence on the physical and behavioral characteristics of people. This paper seeks to explain the factors which affect nature and nurture. The nature theory holds that human behavior is hereditary. True to the theory, some traits such as blood type and eye color are known to be predominantly genetic. It can therefore be asserted that genetic variation of people affects the development and characteristics of the next generation (Lippa 2005, p. 28). Nurture on the other side holds that the environment in which an individual is brought up in influences his or her behavior. In this context therefore, it can be acknowledged that the ability of an individual to interact and conform to the societal requirements and the environment at large affects the degree to which the environment can influence the individual’s behavior (Lippa 2005, p. 28). Still to be noted here is the effect of age on the influence of nature and nurture. Inherited traits are first noticed when a child is born. As the child grows up to teenage, behavioral characteristics are predominantly influenced by the environment because of the interactive nature of people at this stage of growth as well as the ability to conform to peers and the society at large (Lerner & Bearer 2004, p. 86). At adult stages, people tend to become more independent hence less influenced by the environment. At this stage therefore nature prevails but the nurture traits acquired at early stages of growth remains effective. In conclusion therefore, nature and nurture are undoubtedly influential to human development. Nature gives inborn traits while nurture takes these inborn abilities and changes them with age to fit the individual’s environment. ? Bibliography Lippa, R 2005, Gender, nature, and nurture, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Lerner, R, & Bearer, E 2004, Nature and Nurture: The Complex Interplay of Genetic and Environment. Routledge: New York. Behavior is hereditary. (2016, Sep 12).

United States police vs Brazilian police Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

United States police vs Brazilian police - Essay Example In both the US and Brazil, police are tasked with arresting, searching, and detaining lawbreakers (U.S. Department of State). There exist different policing branches to ensure that such tasks are completed passably. This paper explores policing in Brazil and the United states, the differences between the two, how policing affects the country, and the different policing branches in both countries. There are diverse distinguishable differences that exist between policing in the United States and Brazilian police. The difference in policing all depends on the training and culture adopted by the police departments. The United States leans more on ethical policing (U.S. Department of State), as compared to Brazil that has a more barbarous system. Brazilian police are termed as being trigger-happy and appallingly violent, and this is mostly because of revenge missions against mobs that may have assassinated members of their workforce. According to Wells, â€Å"in the United States, with a population 60 percent larger than Brazil and more firearms in circulation, 410 civilians were killed during the same year. It compared the number of Brazilians killed to the 89 police killed while on duty during the same period -- the equivalent of 21 civilians dying for every police officer during the course of the year†. Although police brutality is reported in both countries, it is more rampant in Brazil as compared to America (Wells). The Brazilian policing system has been forced into this kind of callousness because of â€Å"high levels of violent crime, broken judicial institutions and a lack of funding and training† (Wells). The US policing is better than Brazil’s because of advanced training, better funding, adeptness in the legal system, and generally lower levels of vicious wrongdoings. Both the Brazilian military police and several departments of the US police have utilized a radio communications system to manage police communications effectively, a factor that has

Popular Culture Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Popular Culture - Movie Review Example Thirteen days movie is about interpersonal influence and decision making. It can also be reflected on narrative theory, organization, contextualized sequences of events which can be seen in case studies, classroom discussions of any management topics. This movie makes us to think about how decisions are made in organizations, where, and why. It involves strategy, critical reasoning and decisiveness to conclude on a holistic perspective. Strategic decisions are not event based in this movie but more on political views. The movie plot has uncertainties, intense pressures and unfolding of disastrous events which can happen in any management. When Kennedy is making decisions we can relate to the senior managements decision making policy which are mostly politicized than general reasoning. Contextual, temporal and processual factors play a key role in influencing decisions which mostly takes place in all organizations. There are key influencers who make the decisions and impose on the man agement. In October 1962, U-2 surveillance photos reveal that the Soviet Union is in the process of placing missiles carrying nuclear weapons in Cuba. These weapons have the capability of wiping out most of the Eastern and Southern United States in minutes if they become operational. President John F. Kennedy (Bruce Greenwood) and his advisers must come up with a plan of action to prevent their activation.

The current economic situation of UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The current economic situation of UK - Essay Example Morris Capital is going to face a situation in which there may be a gap between its inflows and outflows and as such its liquidity may be drained in coming periods. Based on this, it is estimated that the fund withdrawals will be 3% more than the inflows received by the firm owing to the fact that its investment strategy allow investors to start withdrawing the funds after five years. Considering this situation, the Investment Committee of Morris Capital is going to meet in March 2010 to further discuss the strategic allocation of the assets as well as outline the future course of action. This report will therefore provide an overview of the current investment environment and provide alternatives for plausible asset allocation along with the recommendations for the future course of action that may be taken. The current economic situation of UK is relatively more unstable owing to the financial meltdown that occurred during 2007. The overall situation is not considered as healthy as the estimates indicate that the UK’s economy will grow at a very sluggish rate as IMF’s forecasts indicate that the UK’s economy is its worst after 1930s. During 2009, UK’s economy experienced a growth rate of just 0.1%1 during the last quarter of 2009 indicating the overall state of the economic conditions.

Career Development Programs and Services in Schools Essay

Career Development Programs and Services in Schools - Essay Example It helps us in deciding which occupation is most suitable for us according to our personality. Through career development, we can also judge our mental capabilities, our area of interest and so on. In the modern era, life is going very fast day by day, in this scenario, career guidelines and career development centers are very productive to helping the students. In the hustle bustle of life, adults become very confused and disorientated, cannot able to recognize their own interest. They need some proper channel for choosing their career. In this proposal, I have focused on the development of the adult students in the schools. If the adults have got proper training or guideline from the schools, resultantly they will become very much clear about their direction. Career development is very necessary for the well being of the character of the students. It enhances their abilities and refines their thoughts. â€Å"Career development is the planning of one’s career and the implementations of the career plans by means of education, training, jobs, search and acquisition, and work experiences. If we look at the process more from the perspective of the organization, the career development is the process of guiding the placement, movement, and growth of employees through assessment planned training activities, and planned job assignments† (Garavan, 1990). Career guidance comes under the field of counseling which places an emphasis on the significance of curiosity. The basis of a career decision happens to be the knowledge that you have of your own self and the way you project yourself into the future. A consideration is also taken of the skills, preferences and requirements. Through it, the anxieties and assumptions of the future have a great impact upon them. These have an important link with the past and they are the determination of the degree to which the options are flexible and adventurous. The decision procedure is made further complicated and  formidable due to the initial decisions being made when there is a lot of ambiguity.  

Discuss Nora Helmer's journey from 'dolly' wife to emanicapted woman Essay

Discuss Nora Helmer's journey from 'dolly' wife to emanicapted woman in ''A Doll's House'' by Ibsen - Essay Example In this situation, Nora is depicted as an extravagant woman who spends a lot of money on Christmas presents and home improvements. Yet the play goes well past such meanings and point of view, so that when all the characters and intensities have appeared during the plot development, the play seems to point to something different from what the readers have supposed at the beginning. The first factor of change is marked by a blackmail form Nils Krogsta. In order to save her husband, Nora lent some money from Nils Krogstad, but he found that Nora forged her dying father's signature. When Nora finds a letter, she matures and understands that the disclosure will cost her love and devotion of her husband and happy family life. As a mature woman, she does everything possible to solve the situation (ask her friend Christine to help her), but fails. In Nora's remarks, readers can find the stages of a repudiation of such a "civilized" development, and this refusal, going deeper than a social responsibility. Though, because social role of the wife is predetermined, Ibsen underlines that Nora feels miserable and depressed. The symbolic meaning of blackmail helps readers to grasp the idea at once shaping atmosphere of the play. Also, this setting contemplates nature, both the natural world around the narrator and her own inner nature. Another unique setting is Torvald's st udy. Before he shuts the door he calls to him" (Ibsen).

Pornography & violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pornography & violence - Essay Example Based on various studies conducted in both clinical and experimental settings, exposure to media specifically films showing sexually violent acts against women has substantially augmented the likelihood of aggression by men. This may be attributed to the fact that such scenes convey the message that women find force and aggression during sex rather pleasurable. (Donnerstein, 1986) In this regard, these pornographic materials exhibiting violence may exert significant influence in how men perceive and treat women. As the media is deemed to facilitate the â€Å"copy cat† effect, I reckon that male viewers of smut materials become inclined to think that performing violent acts on women is cool or even normal. Thus, they become less restrained in committing aggression towards women. In addition, with the advent of the internet, these explicit materials become easily accessible to billions of people despite the efforts undertaken by censor bodies and concerned citizens. The perception that women are willing participants in sexually violent acts as well as the accessibility of violent pornography are the primary factors that may be expected to bring about the rise in the number of reported cases of violence against women. These place the women in our society at great risk. In view of the above, I believe that the elimination of violent pornography would be a crucial step in reducing violence against women. To address this, cooperation between government bodies and local communities must be sought. For instance, public institutions should strengthen their battle against pornographers, who proliferate sexually violent materials. This may be done not only by focusing administrative efforts on small-time smut producers but more so on the big-time pornographers. These government bodies should aim to effectively implement censorship rules in regulating the media and severely punish those who are found guilty of violating such rules. Moreover, the

My Dream House Essay Example for Free

My Dream House Essay Good afternoon everyone. Does anybody have their own dream house? Well, I have. Nowadays, most people have their own houses. The house I want to be my won would make me feel comfortable with a big hall, my own bedroom and a front garden that is full of flowers. My dream house’s interior design will be carefully planned. I would like to have a spacious hall since it is the first place visitors will see as they come in through the front door. There would be unique art designed posters on the wall. On the left hand side of the hall there would be a glass cupboard with my collection of diamonds in it and on the right hand side of the hall there would be my photos during my childhood. At the end of the hall, there would be a staircase leading upstairs. One the next floor, there would be my own bedroom. My bedroom would reflect my inner world and privacy so it would be painted light purple. My view is that light purple is the colour that represents my feelings of harmony and peace. I can say that the interior design of my house is like my spiritual world so I’d decorate it in such a way that all the rooms will be painted in different colours would symbolize my true feelings. Light pink would make me feel happy and light blue would make me remember happy memories. An air-conditioned television room would be next to my bedroom. In the television room, there would be a big and soft sofa so that I can watch television comfortably after my activities. The outer design of my dream house should be attractive. I desire to have a magnificent front garden outside my house. The front garden should be full of flowers and fruit trees. I would plant orchids and roses. When I am in a bad mood or when I am angry of something, my anger will be lessen after looking at those beautiful flowers and smelling their fragrance. Place that we spend our life is very significant because our moods are affected by the design and the location. If we live in a place filled with noise and air pollution, our feelings would become negative. Staying in my dream house would make me live with peace of mind. Thank you.

The Study of Proteome

The Study of Proteome The breakthrough in the study of genomics has created a great impact for biological research. For instance, the complete genome sequencing accomplished for various model organisms such as bacteria, yeast and drosophila has been a key to understanding the diversity and functions in living system (Liebler, 2002). However, the gene products, proteins are playing crucial complex functions in sustaining the living system. Therefore, in order to acquire a clearer picture about the function of the living cells at molecular level, it is important to study the entire set of protein expressed by a genome, cell, tissue or organism throughout the cell cycle as known as proteome (Monti et al., 2005). This study of proteome is termed proteomics which is mainly focus on the identification of proteins, determination of the interaction between various proteins as a part of a larger network and outlining the 3D structures of proteins (Liu Hsu, 2004). According to Liebler (2002), the applications of proteomics comprised of mining, protein-expression profiling, protein-network mapping and mapping of protein modifications. These four principals then bring about the branches of proteomics which are the sequence and structural proteomics, expression proteomics, interaction proteomics as well as functional proteomics. i. Sequence and structural proteomics Structural proteomics is generally aimed at efficiently convert the gene sequence into 3D structural information which will then being used to facilitate the prediction of protein folding and functions afterward (Yee et al., 2002). 3D structure prediction and determination of proteins on a genome-wide scale are managed to provide substantial information in understanding the structure-function relationships of the particular proteins (Liu Hsu, 2004). The approaches commonly employed for this area of study are NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. In a study done by Yee et al. (2002), structural proteomics of small proteins based on data of 513 proteins from five microorganisms is done by using NMR spectroscopy. Small proteins are more acquiescent for structure analysis primarily due to its solubility as protein aggregation appeared to be a limitation for structural proteomics (Yee et al., 2002). NMR evaluation of proteins is performed after ran through a series of cloning, expression and purification processes. The chosen targets for NMR screening by Yee et al. (2002) were single chain polypeptides with not more than 23 kDa molecular mass. PCR was involved to amplify the targets from genomic DNA. Subsequent cloning of the target proteins into vectors was then carried out. Batch Ni2+ affinity chromatography was done for the extraction of cells (Yee et al., 2002). Varian INOVA 500- or 600-MHz spectrometer was used to attain all the 1H-15N heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) spectra and the NMRPIPE software package was utilized to processed the data (Yee et al., 2002). The HSQC spectrum is to provide a diagnostic fingerprint of a protein. Twelve of the proteins were considered to be suitable for structure determination and have their 3D structures successfully analysed which were conserved without functional annotation (Yee et al., 2002). Among them, eight out of twelve were the members of uncharacterized cluster of orthologous groups (COG) or protein superfamilies. In order to know whether a 3D structure can be predicted, the sequences were submitted to SwissModeler to be analysed based on sequence similarity. ii. Expression proteomics Human Protein Atlas (HPA) launched by Swedish researchers in 2003 is a comprehensive effort in mapping the proteins expressed in the body’s tissue and cells according to the genes documented by Human Genome Project (Marx, 2014). HPA principally looked at the spatial distribution and protein-expression patterns of human proteins as well as comparing the protein expression between cancerous and normal tissues. The expression proteomics is a focus for proteome study which targets on measurement of the up- and down-regulation of protein levels as well to explore the protein expression patterns in abnormal cells for biomedical application (Monti et al., 2005). Approaches like mass spectrometry, 2D-gel electrophoresis and protein arrays are used in expression proteomics. Mazzanti et al. (2006) as done an investigation upon the differential expression proteomics of human colon cancer to look at the operative pathway of early stages of human colon cancer and to compare with normal colon tissue. In this case, they were using 2D-gel electrophoresis to observe the differences in protein expression at various differentiation levels. After the tissues were properly collected and homogenized, Western Blot analysis was carried out to evaluate the expression levels of the proteins and followed by 2D-GE. The differences in intensity of each spot and the normalized spot volume were calculated and statistically analysed. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectroscopy analysis of tryptic peptides was performed to detect the differentially expressed samples processed by 2D-GE (Mazzanti et al., 2006). Lastly, a search through NCBI non-redundant databases and SWISSPROT was completed to identify the proteins. As a result, several proteins were found differentially expressed in colon cancer and normal tissue. Mazzanti et al. (2006) have obtained 11 and 15 proteins from healthy and cancerous tissues which were categorized according to the pathway they involved respectively. In addition, they also claimed that cancer tissues preferably utilize glycolysis due to selective repression of ÃŽ ²-subunit ATPase expression and limited substrate availability to mitochondria (Mazzanti et al., 2006). iii. Interaction proteomics Interaction proteomics emphasis on the elucidation of protein-protein interaction to which the multitude functions of proteins in association with individual components of proteome and the formation of multimeric complexes (Và ¶lkel et al., 2010). Frequently utilized approaches for interaction proteomics are like mass spectrometry (MS), affinity captured combined with mass spectrometry and yeast 2-hybrid techniques. Và ¶lkel et al. (2010) mentioned that characterize protein complexes from bacteria, yeast, mammalian cells and some multicellular organisms can be done by using tandem affinity purification-mass spectrometry (TAP-MS). TAP is functioned based on the dual purification of protein assemblies by sequential utilization of two affinity tags spaced by a TEV (tobacco etch virus) protease cleavage site (Và ¶lkel et al., 2010). TEV is a sequence-specific protease that cleaves a recognition site of seven-amino-acid (Glu-X-X-Tyr-X-Gln/Ser) which is rarely found in mammalian proteins (Berggà ¥rd et al., 2007; Và ¶lkel et al., 2010). This epitope-tagging purification strategy further improves the sample purification prior to protein identification by MS. In the first purification step, the TAP-tag protein is bound to specific column like immobilized Ig (Berggà ¥rd et al., 2007; Và ¶lkel et al., 2010). Retrieval of TAP-tag protein is done by adding TEV-proteinase. The protein complex is then immobilized by CBP (calmodium-binding peptide) of TAP tag to a second column, the calmodulin-coated beads in the second affinity step. This calcium-dependent CBP-calmodium interaction enables the elution of final protein complex for MS protein identification by means of calcium chelation (Và ¶lkel et al., 2010). The TAP purification of protein complex is independent of the availability of specific antibodies. It is used to accomplish large-scale protein interaction mapping of lower organisms and decode the smaller interactomes and signalling pathway in mammals (Và ¶lkel et al., 2010). However, this technique may not be able to identify low stoichiometric complexes, transient interactions or under-represented interactions occurred specifically in some physiological states of cells growing exponentially (Và ¶lkel et al., 2010). iv. Functional proteomics The objectives of functional proteomics are to characterize the biological function of unknown proteins, multiprotein complexes and descript the cellular mechanisms as well as signalling pathway at molecular level (Monti et al., 2005). Henning and Ilag (2003) stated that the protein functions assessment could be done based on the individual cell types and interaction of protein partners. Functional proteomics implement the concept that functional inactivation within the physiological environment of a targeted protein can be used to determine its function (Henning Ilag, 2003). Tools that are typically employed in functional proteomics include 2D-gel electrophoresis, MS, MALDI-TOF (matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight) MS and affinity-based procedure. The affinity-based procedure is worked on the idea that a suitable tag of the expressed target protein can be used as a bait to fish out its partners from a cellular extract (Monti et al., 2005). Brookes et al. (2002) utilized a high-throughput two-dimensional blue-native electrophoresis in the study of functional proteomics for mitochondria and signalling pathway. As mitochondrial membrane proteins exhibit hydrophobic properties, precipitation is occurred in standard 2D gels during the first dimension isoelectric focusing. Thus, the 2D blue-native gel electrophoresis is used resolve this problem. The first dimension of 2D blue native gel electrophoresis involved the solubilization the membrane protein complexes into its native form. This is followed by the second dimension utilizing the sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-page) with its gel staining performed by employing a mixture of Coomassie blue G-250 and R-250. SDS-page is worked on denaturing the protein complexes and enables them to resolve into their component subunits (Brookes et al., 2002). A partial mitochondrial proteome map was then assembled by using MALDI-TOF MS coupled with tryptic peptide fingerprinting. This 2D blue native gel electrophoresis is found suitable for proteomic analysis of mitochondria proteins in which it could separate large amount of mitochondria proteins and large proportion of respiratory chain complexes as presented as the spots on the gel can be readily identified according to their position (Brookes et al., 2002). The functional associations between different respiratory complexes in mitochondria like cytochrome C, respiratory complexes III and IV can be interpreted from the gels. From this study, Brookes et al. (2002) suggested that the respiratory complexes are able to assemble into sub-complexes with limited functionality regardless of the presence of mtDNA encoded subunits.